By: Gültekin Boran (Ph. D)
THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD (GTM)
1. Learning Theory: Deductive learning is essential. First, the teacher gives rules explicitly then the rules are reinforced with examples and exercises.
2. Language Theory: Language is for understanding the literature. Translation is the way to learn the language. Oral communication is not primarily important. Written language is superior to spoken language. Students also learn the structure of their own native language. Those who study a foreign language become more cultured and intellectual.
3. Culture: Culture is limited to literature and fine arts.
4. Teachers' Role: Teacher is the strict authority. Classes are teacher centred.
5. Students' Role: Students are the passive receivers of the new information. The teacher starts the activities and directs them. Students are supposed to memorise the rules and the new vocabulary with their meanings in their native language.
6. Interactions: Very often “Teacher –Student” interactions occur. Rarely “Student – Student” interactions also occur.
7. Vocabulary Teaching: The most common vocabulary teaching technique is “the memorisation of long lists of vocabulary with their equivalents in the students’ native language. Other techniques are
-Teaching “cognates” (i.e., “cinema –sinema”, “theatre – tiyatro” ..., etc).
- Using synonyms and antonyms
8. Grammar Teaching: The teaching of grammar is deductive. The teacher introduces the rules explicitly and wants the students to apply these rules to new examples in exercises. Students are supposed to memorise the rules. In order to explain the rules, the teacher uses comparison and contract between the students’ native language grammar and target language grammar. Translation is a common way to clarify the meanings of the new grammar patterns in the target language.
9. Materials: Texts from the target language literature are used. The teacher may either write the text or use an authentic literary text.
10.Syllabus: Structural syllabus (i.e., list of structures to be taught during the course) is used. The order of structures starts from the easiest
11.Role of L1: L1 (i.e., students’ native language) has an important function in teaching vocabulary and grammar. Since oral communication in the target language is not important, classroom instructions are given in L1.
12. Evaluation: Translation is an important technique to test students’ progress in the target language. In addition, “fill-in-the-blank” type test items are also used. Synonyms, antonyms, and cognates can be asked to test vocabulary in formal tests. Reading passages and comprehension questions about the passages can also take place in tests as the reading section.
13.Goals and Objectives: Among the goals are to teach translation, to read and understand literary texts in the target language, to make students aware of their native language structure and vocabulary, and to improve students’ mental capacities with grammar exercises.
14.Error Correction: The teacher corrects the errors strictly. Errors are not tolerated. Accuracy is emphasised strictly. Accuracy means grammatical correctness.
15.Student's Feelings: There is no information about how GTM deals with students’ feelings. V Therefore, we cannot consider this method as a humanistic approach.
16.Techniques:
1. Translation of a Literary Passage: Students translate a passage from the target language into their native language. The passage provides the focus for several classes: vocabulary and grammatical structures in the passage are studied in the following lessons.
2.
3. Antonyms / Synonyms: Students are given one set of words and are asked to find antonyms in the reading passage. A similar exercise could be done by asking students to find synonyms for a particular set of words.
4. Cognates: Students are taught to recognise cognates by learning the spelling or sound patterns that correspond between the languages. Students should be aware of “true cognates” (i.e., theatre-tiyatro) and “false cognates” (i.e., apartment-apartman).
5. Deductive Application of Rule: Grammar rules are presented with examples. Exceptions to each rule are also noted. Once students understand a rule, they are asked to apply it to some different examples.
6. Fill-in-the blanks: Students are given a series of sentences with words missing. They fill in the blanks with new vocabulary items or necessary items of grammatical features.
7. Memorisation: Students are given lists of target language vocabulary words and their native language equivalents and are asked to memorise them. Students are also required to memorise grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms such as verb conjugations.
8. Use words in Sentences: In order to show that students understand the meaning and use of a new vocabulary item, they make up sentences in which they use the new words.
9. Composition: The teacher gives the students a topic to write about in the target language. The topic is based upon some aspect of the reading passage of the lesson. Sometimes, instead of creating a composition, students are asked to prepare a précis (pronounced as /preısı/).
17. Skills: The primary skills to be improved are “reading” and “writing”. Little attention is given to speaking and listening, and almost no attention to pronunciation.
THE DIRECT METHOD (DM)
DM was born as a reaction to GTM because GTM cannot prepare learners for real life language situations in which oral communication is the media.
1. Learning Theory: Inductive learning is essential. There is a direct relation between form and meaning. L2 learning is similar to L1 acquisition. There is a direct exposure to the target language. Exposure of Long chunks in the target language. Learning occurs naturally.
2. Language Theory: Language is for oral use. Each language is unique. There is a direct relation between form and meaning. No other language should interfere when learning a language.
3. Culture: Not only art or literature, but also other aspects of culture (namely, life style, customs, traditions, institutions, food, daily habits, history, geography, etc.) Should be taken into consideration. Daily speech is important.
4. Teacher's Role: The teacher usually directs the interactions but he/she is not as dominant as in GTM. Sometimes acts like a partner of the students.
5. Students' Role: Sts are active participants. Sometimes pair works take place. Even the teacher takes roles in activities.
6. Interactions: T- st and St - st interactions often occur.
7. Vocabulary Teaching: Pictures, realia, examples, sample sentences are used to teach vocabulary. Use of L1 is not allowed. There is a direct relation between form and meaning.
8. Grammar Teaching: Grammar is taught inductively. Examples and drills are given and students are expected to discover and acquire the rules. Drills like chain drill, yes question, no question, or question are used to help students induce the rule.
9. Materials: Reading passages (for topics), Dialogues (for situation), plays (for situations) are used.
10. Syllabus: Situational and topical syllabuses are used.
11. Role of L1: L1 is not permitted.
12. Evaluation: Sts' ability to use the language is tested. Not about language, the language itself.
13. Goals and Objectives: Teaching Sts how to communicate in the target language. Teaching of thinking in the target language.
14. Error Correction: Sts' self correction.
15. Sts' Feelings: There is no information dealing with this issue.
16. Techniques: Reading aloud, Question and answer exercise, self correction, conversation practice, fill-in-the-blank exercise, dictation, drawing (for listening comprehension), and paragraph writing.
17. Skills: Speaking, listening, reading and writing are important skills. Especially speaking and listening are emphasised. Vocabulary is over grammar.
THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD (ALM)
1. Learning Theory: Learning is based on the principles of Behaviourism. (Mim-mem approach).
Habit Formation is essential.
Habit Formation
Reinforcement (Behaviour is likely to occur again)
Stimulus----organism
No reinforcement or negative reinforcement (Behaviour is not likely to occur again)
Rules are induced from examples. Explicit grammar rules are not given. Learning is inductive.
Habit formation is actualised by means of repetitions and other mechanical drills.
2. Language Theory: Language is based on descriptive linguistics. Every language is seen as its own unique system. The system is comprised of several different levels. (i.e. phonological, morphological, and syntactic). There is a natural order of skills. 1. Listening, 2. Speaking, 3.
3. Culture: Culture consists of everyday behaviour, and lifestyle of the target language community. Culture is presented in dialogues.
4. Teacher’s Role: T is like an orchestra leader. S/he directs and controls the language behaviour of the students. T is a good model of the target language, especially for pronunciation and other oral skills. The differences between Sts’ L1 and L2 should be known by the teacher.
5. Students’ Role: Sts are imitators of the teacher as perfect model of the target language or the native speakers in the audio recordings.
6. Interactions: T-St, ST- ST. Interactions are mostly initiated by the teacher.
7. Vocabulary Teaching: Meaning is taught directly. L1 is prohibited because it may cause bad habit formations. Vocabulary is introduced through dialogues.
8. Grammar Teaching: Explicit rules are not provided. Students induce the rules through examples and drills. Students acquire grammar by being exposed to patterns through mechanical drills.
9. Materials: Dialogues
10. Syllabus: Grammar points and sentence patterns in structural syllabus.
11. Role of L1: L1 is not allowed in the classroom. It may cause interference and bad habit formation in L2.
12. Evaluation: Discrete-point tests are used. Each item (question) should focus on only one point of the language at a time. E.g. distinguishing between words in a minimal pair. Appropriate verb form in a sentence.
13. Goals and Objectives: to enable students to speak and write in the target language. To make students able to use the target language automatically without stopping to think. To form new habits in the target language.
14. Error Correction: Errors are corrected by the teacher since errors may cause bad habit formation.
15. Sts’ Feelings: There are no principles related to Sts’ feelings.
16. Techniques:
1. Dialogue Memorisation
2. Minimal pairs: (for teaching pronunciation)
3. Complete the dialogue
4. Grammar Games
5. Mechanical Drills
a) Repetition drill
b) Chain Drill
c) Single- slot Substitution Drill (T gives one cue to be substituted)
d) Multiple-slot Substitution Drill (T gives more than one cue to be substituted)
17. Skills: Listening and speaking are emphasised. There is a natural order of skills.
1. Listening 2. Speaking 3.
1. Learning Theory: Cognitive Psychology is the basis. Language learning is not habit formation. It is rule formation. Language learning has a sequence from the known to the unknown. Students induce the rules from examples and the languages they are exposed to, therefore learning is inductive
2. Language Theory: Languages of the world share a number of features (e.g. every language uses subject, object; every language has adjective, adverb, verb ...etc.) However each language is unique. Language is for self expression (to express thoughts, perceptions, ideas and feelings). "Cognitive Coding" helps learners learn the language. "Colour rods" and "Fidel Chart" are used for cognitive coding.
3. Culture: Culture is an inseparable part of language. Language reflects culture. Everyday life, art, literature. etc. should be learnt.
4. Teachers' Role: The teacher is a technician or an engineer who facilitates learning. Only the learner can do learning. The teacher is aware of what the students already know and he/she can decide the next step. The teacher is silent. Silence is a tool because teacher's silence gives the responsibility to the student. Besides teacher's silence helps students monitor themselves and improve their own inner criteria.
5. Students' Role: Students should make use of what they already know. They are responsible for
their own learning. They actively take part in exploring the language. The teacher works with the students and the students work on the language. St-st interaction is important. Sts can learn from each other.
6. Interactions: The teacher is silent in "T-st” interactions. St-st interactions are also possible because students can learn from each other.
7. Vocabulary Teaching: Vocabulary is taught by means of visual aids and word-charts. Vocabulary is always recycled by means of word-charts. Vocabulary is restricted at the beginning.
8. Grammar Teaching: There is a focus on the structures of the language although explicit grammar rules are never given.
9. Materials: Sound Colour Charts (For teaching pronunciation; one colour represents one sound), Colour Rods (for cognitive coding of grammatical patterns), 8 Fidel Charts (used for sound spelling association.
10. Syllabus: There is no linear structural syllabus. The teacher starts with what students already know, and builds from one structure to the next. The syllabus develops according to the students' learning needs.
11. Role of L1: L1 can be used to give instructions when necessary. Meaning is made clear by focusing the student's perceptions, not by translation. During feedback sessions L1 be used at beginning levels. L1 can be exploited. For example, similar sounds in L1 and L2 can be used to make students aware of phonological similarities.
12. Evaluation: The teacher may never give a formal test. He/she assesses students' learning all the time. Continuous monitoring by the teacher is essential.
13. Goals and Objectives: Students should be able to use the target language for self expression (to express their thoughts, feelings, ideas). To help students improve their inner criteria for correctness. Students should rely on themselves to be able to use the target language.
14. Error Correction: Errors are natural and inevitable. The teacher uses students' errors to decide where further work is necessary. Self correction is necessary for the students to compare their own production with their developing inner criteria. If students cannot self-correct, the teacher supplies the correct language but only as a last resort. Peer correction is also very common, but it should be in a co-operative manner.
15. Student's Feelings: Students' negative feelings are treated by the teacher. During feedback sessions, students can express their feelings like their fears, what they think about classes, and learning a foreign language, their needs and wants. Students are encouraged to co-operate with one another in order to create a relaxed and enjoyable classroom atmosphere.
16. Techniques:
1. Teaching pronunciation with "sound colour charts"
2. Cognitive coding with colour rods.
3. Peer correction to improve co-operative manner.
4. Self correction gestures
5. Teacher's Silence
6. Structured feedback: Students are invited to talk about the day's instruction (what they have
learnt that day during classes). Students learn to take responsibility for their own learning by becoming aware of themselves, and by controlling and applying their own learning strategies.
7. Fidel Charts: Used to teach sound spelling association.
8. Word Charts: Used to teach and recycle vocabulary. The words are written in different
colours so that students can learn basic pronunciation patterns.
17. Skills: Pronunciation is emphasised at the very beginning. It is important that students
acquire the melody of the language. All four skills (reading, writing, speaking, and listening)
are worked on from the beginning.
No comments:
Post a Comment